Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：American Chemical Society (ACS)  

To solve the problem of uncontrolled therapeutic gene integration, which is a critical drawback of retroviral vectors for gene therapy, the integration sites of exogenous genes should be precisely controlled not to perturb endogenous gene expression. To accomplish this, we explored the possibility of site-specific integration using two six-finger artificial zinc-finger proteins (AZPs) tandemly conjugated via a flexible peptide linker (designated “Tandem AZP”). A Tandem AZP in which two AZPs recognize specific 19 bp targets in a donor and acceptor DNA was expected to site-specifically recruit the donor DNA to the acceptor DNA. Thereafter, an exogenously added integrase was expected to integrate the donor DNA into a specific site in the acceptor DNA (as it might be in the human genome). We demonstrated in vitro that in the presence of Tandem AZP, ΦC31 integrase selectively integrated a donor plasmid into a target acceptor plasmid not only at 30 °C (the optimum temperature of the integrase) but also at 37 °C (for future application in humans). We expect that with further improvement of our current system, a combination of Tandem AZP with integrase/recombinase will enable site-specific integration in mammalian cells and provide safer gene therapy technology.

DOI： 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00979

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

Various viruses infect animals and humans and cause a variety of diseases, including cancer. However, effective methodologies to prevent virus infection have not yet been established. Therefore, development of technologies to inactivate viruses is highly desired. We have already demonstrated that cleavage of a DNA virus genome was effective to prevent its replication. Here, we expanded this methodology to RNA viruses. In the present study, we used staphylococcal nuclease (SNase) instead of the PIN domain (PilT N-terminus) of human SMG6 as an RNA-cleavage domain and fused the SNase to a human Pumilio/fem-3 binding factor (PUF)-based artificial RNA-binding protein to construct an artificial RNA restriction enzyme with enhanced RNA-cleavage rates for influenzavirus. The resulting SNase-fusion nuclease cleaved influenza RNA at rates 120-fold greater than the corresponding PIN-fusion nuclease. The cleaving ability of the PIN-fusion nuclease was not improved even though the linker moiety between the PUF and RNA-cleavage domain was changed. Gel shift assays revealed that the RNA-binding properties of the PUF derivative used was not as good as wild type PUF. Improvement of the binding properties or the design method will allow the SNase-fusion nuclease to cleave an RNA target in mammalian animal cells and/or organisms.

DOI： 10.1016/j.bbrc.2016.09.142

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Ethanolamine ammonia-lyase (EAL) catalyzes the adenosylcobalamin-dependent conversion of ethanolamine to acetaldehyde and ammonia. 1-OH of the substrate is hydrogen-bonded with Gluα287, Argα160, and Asnα193 and 2-NH2 with Gluα287, Glnα162, and Aspα362. The active site somewhat resembles that of diol dehydratase. All five residues were important for the high-affinity binding of the substrate and for catalysis. The -COO– group at residue α287 was absolutely required for activity and coenzyme Co–C bond cleavage, and there was a spatially optimal position for it, suggesting that Gluα287 contributes to Co–C bond homolysis, stabilizes the transition state for the migration of NH2 from C2 to C1 through partial deprotonation of spectator OH, and functions as a base in the elimination of ammonia. A positive charge and/or the hydrogen bond at position α160 and the hydrogen bonds at positions α162 and α193 with the substrate are important for catalysis and for preventing a radical intermediate from undergoing side reactions. Argα160 would stabilize the trigonal transition state in NH2 migration by electrostatic catalysis and hydrogen bonding with spectator OH. Asnα193 would contribute to maintaining the appropriate position and direction of the guanidinium group of Argα160, as well. Hydrogen bond acceptors were necessary at position α162, but hydrogen bond donors were rather harmful. Glnα162 might stabilize the trigonal transition state by accepting a hydrogen bond from migrating NH3+. The activity was very sensitive to the position of -COO– at α362. Aspα362 would assist Co–C bond homolysis indirectly and stabilize the trigonal transition state by accepting a hydrogen bond from migrating NH3+ and electrostatic interaction.

DOI： 10.1021/bi500223k

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We previously reported that our sandwiched zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), in which a DNA cleavage domain is inserted between two artificial zinc-finger proteins, cleave their target DNA much more efficiently than conventional ZFNs in vitro. In the present study, we compared DNA cleaving efficiencies of a sandwiched ZFN with those of its corresponding conventional ZFN in mammalian cells. Using a plasmid-based single-strand annealing reporter assay in HEK293 cells, we confirmed that the sandwiched ZFN induced homologous recombination more efficiently than the conventional ZFN; reporter activation by the sandwiched ZFN was more than eight times that of the conventional one. Western blot analysis showed that the sandwiched ZFN was expressed less frequently than the conventional ZFN, indicating that the greater DNA-cleaving activity of the sandwiched ZFN was not due to higher expression of the sandwiched ZFN. Furthermore, an MTT assay demonstrated that the sandwiched ZFN did not have any significant cytotoxicity under the DNA-cleavage conditions. Thus, because our sandwiched ZFN cleaved more efficiently than its corresponding conventional ZFN in HEK293 cells as well as in vitro, sandwiched ZFNs are expected to serve as an effective molecular tool for genome editing in living cells.

DOI： 10.1016/j.bmcl.2013.12.096

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Diol dehydratase-reactivase (DD-R) is a molecular chaperone that reactivates inactivated holodiol dehydratase (DD) by cofactor exchange. Its ADP-bound and ATP-bound forms are high-affinity and low-affinity forms for DD, respectively. Among DD-Rs mutated at the nucleotide-binding site, neither the Dα8N nor Dα413N mutant was effective as a reactivase. Although Dα413N showed ATPase activity, it did not mediate cyanocobalamin (CN-Cbl) release from the DD·CN-Cbl complex in the presence of ATP or ADP and formed a tight complex with apoDD even in the presence of ATP, suggesting the involvement of Aspα413 in the nucleotide switch. In contrast, Dα8N showed very low ATPase activity and did not mediate CN-Cbl release from the complex in the presence of ATP, but it did cause about 50% release in the presence of ADP. The complex formation of this mutant with DD was partially reversed by ATP, suggesting that Aspα8 is involved in the ATPase activity but only partially in the nucleotide switch. Among DD-Rs mutated at the Mg2+-binding site, only Eβ31Q was about 30% as active as wild-type DD-R and formed a tight complex with apoDD, indicating that the DD-R β subunit is not absolutely required for reactivation. If subunit swapping occurs between the DD-R β and DD β subunits, Gluβ97 of DD would coordinate to Mg2+. The complex of Eβ97Q DD with CN-Cbl was not activated by wild-type DD-R. No complex was formed between this mutant and wild-type DD-R, indicating that the coordination of Gluβ97 to Mg2+ is essential for subunit swapping and therefore for (re)activation.

DOI： 10.1021/bi401290j

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Wiley  

Coenzyme B12 dependent diol dehydratase undergoes mechanism-based inactivation by glycerol, accompanying the irreversible cleavage of the coenzyme Co–C bond. Bachovchin et al. [Biochemistry16, 1082–1092 (1977)] reported that glycerol bound in the GS conformation, in which the pro-S-CH2OH group is oriented to the hydrogen-abstracting site, primarily contributes to the inactivation reaction. To understand the mechanism of inactivation by glycerol, we analyzed the X-ray structure of diol dehydratase complexed with cyanocobalamin and glycerol. Glycerol is bound to the active site preferentially in the same conformation as that of (S)-1,2-propanediol, i.e. in the GS conformation, with its 3-OH group hydrogen bonded to Serα301, but not to nearby Glnα336. kinact of the Sα301A, Qα336A and Sα301A/Qα336A mutants with glycerol was much smaller than that of the wild-type enzyme. kcat/kinact showed that the Sα301A and Qα336A mutants are substantially more resistant to glycerol inactivation than the wild-type enzyme, suggesting that Serα301 and Glnα336 are directly or indirectly involved in the inactivation. The degree of preference for (S)-1,2-propanediol decreased on these mutations. The substrate activities towards longer chain 1,2-diols significantly increased on the Sα301A/Qα336A double mutation, probably because these amino acid substitutions yield more space for accommodating a longer alkyl group on C3 of 1,2-diols.

DOI： 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2012.08470.x

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Adenosylcobalamin-dependent diol dehydratase (DD) undergoes suicide inactivation by glycerol, one of its physiological substrates, resulting in the irreversible cleavage of the coenzyme Co–C bond. The damaged cofactor remains tightly bound to the active site. The DD-reactivating factor reactivates the inactivated holoenzyme in the presence of ATP and Mg2+ by mediating the exchange of the tightly bound damaged cofactor for free intact coenzyme. In this study, we demonstrated that this reactivating factor mediates the cobalamin exchange not stoichiometrically but catalytically in the presence of ATP and Mg2+. Therefore, we concluded that the reactivating factor is a sort of enzyme. It can be designated DD reactivase. The reactivase showed broad specificity for nucleoside triphosphates in the activation of the enzyme·cyanocobalamin complex. This result is consistent with the lack of specific interaction with the adenine ring of ADP in the crystal structure of the reactivase. The specificities of the reactivase for divalent metal ions were also not strict. DD formed 1 : 1 and 1 : 2 complexes with the reactivase in the presence of ADP and Mg2+. Upon complex formation, one β subunit was released from the (αβ)2 tetramer of the reactivase. This result, together with the similarity in amino acid sequences and folds between the DD β subunit and the reactivase β subunit, suggests that subunit displacement or swapping takes place upon formation of the enzyme·reactivase complex. This would result in the dissociation of the damaged cofactor from the inactivated holoenzyme, as suggested by the crystal structures of the reactivase and DD.

DOI： 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2010.07898.x

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The X-ray analyses of coenzyme B12-dependent diol dehydratase revealed two kinds of electron densities that correspond to metal ions in the active site. One is directly coordinated by substrate [Shibata, N., et al. (1999) Structure 7, 997−1008] and the other located near the adenine ring of the coenzyme adenosyl group [Masuda, J., et al. (2000) Structure 8, 775−788]. Both have been assigned as potassium ions, although the coordination distances of the former are slightly shorter than expected. We examined the possibility that the enzyme is a metalloenzyme. Apodiol dehydratase was strongly inhibited by incubation with EDTA and EGTA in the absence of substrate. The metal analysis revealed that the enzyme contains ∼2 mol of tightly bound calcium per mole of enzyme. The calcium-deprived, EDTA-free apoenzyme was obtained by the EDTA treatment, followed by ultrafiltration. The activity of the calcium-deprived apoenzyme was dependent on Ca2+ when assayed with 1 mM substrate. The Km for Ca2+ evaluated in reconstitution experiments was 0.88 μM. These results indicate that the calcium is essential for catalysis. Ca2+ showed a significant stabilizing effect on the calcium-deprived apoenzyme as well. It was thus concluded that the substrate-coordinated metal ion is not potassium but calcium. The potassium ion bound near the adenine ring would be the essential one for the diol dehydratase catalysis. Therefore, this enzyme can be considered to be a metal-activated metalloenzyme.

DOI： 10.1021/bi100561m

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

N-terminal truncation of the Escherichia coli ethanolamine ammonia-lyase β-subunit does not affect the catalytic properties of the enzyme (Akita, K., Hieda, N., Baba, N., Kawaguchi, S., Sakamoto, H., Nakanishi, Y., Yamanishi, M., Mori, K., and Toraya, T. (2010) J. Biochem. 147, 83–93). The binary complex of the truncated enzyme with cyanocobalamin and the ternary complex with cyanocobalamin or adeninylpentylcobalamin and substrates were crystallized, and their x-ray structures were analyzed. The enzyme exists as a trimer of the (αβ)2 dimer. The active site is in the (β/α)8 barrel of the α-subunit; the β-subunit covers the lower part of the cobalamin that is bound in the interface of the α- and β-subunits. The structure complexed with adeninylpentylcobalamin revealed the presence of an adenine ring-binding pocket in the enzyme that accommodates the adenine moiety through a hydrogen bond network. The substrate is bound by six hydrogen bonds with active-site residues. Argα160 contributes to substrate binding most likely by hydrogen bonding with the O1 atom. The modeling study implies that marked angular strains and tensile forces induced by tight enzyme-coenzyme interactions are responsible for breaking the coenzyme Co–C bond. The coenzyme adenosyl radical in the productive conformation was modeled by superimposing its adenine ring on the adenine ring-binding site followed by ribosyl rotation around the N-glycosidic bond. A major structural change upon substrate binding was not observed with this particular enzyme. Gluα287, one of the substrate-binding residues, has a direct contact with the ribose group of the modeled adenosylcobalamin, which may contribute to the substrate-induced additional labilization of the Co–C bond.

DOI： 10.1074/jbc.m110.125112

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Oxford University Press (OUP)  

The methods of homologous high-level expression and simple large-scale purification for coenzyme B12-dependent ethanolamine ammonia-lyase of Escherichia coli were developed. The eutB and eutC genes in the eut operon encoded the large and small subunits of the enzyme, respectively. The enzyme existed as the heterododecamer α6β6. Upon active-site titration with adeninylpentylcobalamin, a strong competitive inhibitor for coenzyme B12, the binding of 1 mol of the inhibitor per mol of the αβ unit caused complete inhibition of enzyme, in consistent with its subunit structure. EPR spectra indicated the formation of substrate-derived radicals during catalysis and the binding of cobalamin in the base-on mode, i.e. with 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole coordinating to the cobalt atom. The purified wild-type enzyme underwent aggregation and inactivation at high concentrations. Limited proteolysis with trypsin indicated that the N-terminal region is not essential for catalysis. His-tagged truncated enzymes were similar to the wild-type enzyme in catalytic properties, but more resistant to p-chloromercuribenzoate than the wild-type enzyme. A truncated enzyme was highly soluble even in the absence of detergent and resistant to aggregation and oxidative inactivation at high concentrations, indicating that a short N-terminal sequence is sufficient to change the solubility and stability of the enzyme.

DOI： 10.1093/jb/mvp145

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Authorship：Lead author   Language：Japanese   Publisher：The Vitamin Society of Japan  

Adenosylcobalamin-dependent enzymes tend to inactivate holoenzyme accompanying the modification of the coenzyme. We identified reactivating factors for inactivated holoenzymes of adenosylcobalamin-dependent diol dehydratase (DD), glycerol dehydratase (GD), and ethanolamine ammonia-lyase (EAL), i.e., DDR, GDR, and EALR, respectively. DDR hydrolyzes ATP to ADP and induces its conformational change. Then, DDR facilitates the dissociation of the damaged coenzyme from the inactivated holoDD through formation of tight DD-DDR-ADP complex. This complex is dissociated into apoDD and DDR by replacing ADP on DDR with ATP, and then active holoenzyme is reconstituted. Crystal structures of DDR allow us to construct a model of DD-DDR complex. DD should be bind to DDR with concomitant displacement of a DDR β subunit by a DD β subunit. It induces steric repulsion between DD α and DDR α subunits that would lead to the release of a damaged coenzyme from inactivated holoDD. GDR reactivates inactivated holoGD by similar mechanism.

DOI： 10.20632/vso.83.3_95

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Other Link： https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/vso/83/3/83_KJ00005489097/_article/-char/en

Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Wiley  

The X-ray structure of the diol dehydratase–adeninylpentylcobalamin complex revealed that the adenine moiety of adenosylcobalamin is anchored in the adenine-binding pocket of the enzyme by hydrogen bonding of N3 with the side chain OH group of Serα224, and of 6-NH2, N1 and N7 with main chain amide groups of other residues. A salt bridge is formed between the ε-NH2 group of Lysβ135 and the phosphate group of cobalamin. To assess the importance of adenine anchoring and ion pairing, Serα224 and Lysβ135 mutants of diol dehydratase were prepared, and their catalytic properties investigated. The Sα224A, Sα224N and Kβ135E mutants were 19–2% as active as the wild-type enzyme, whereas the Kβ135A, Kβ135Q and Kβ135R mutants retained 58–76% of the wild-type activity. The presence of a positive charge at the β135 residue increased the affinity for cobalamins but was not essential for catalysis, and the introduction of a negative charge there prevented the enzyme–cobalamin interaction. The Sα224A and Sα224N mutants showed a kcat/kinact value that was less than 2% that of the wild-type, whereas for Lysβ135 mutants this value was in the range 25–75%, except for the Kβ135E mutant (7%). Unlike the wild-type holoenzyme, the Sα224N and Sα224A holoenzymes showed very low susceptibility to oxygen in the absence of substrate. These findings suggest that Serα224 is important for cobalt–carbon bond activation and for preventing the enzyme from being inactivated. Upon inactivation of the Sα224A holoenzyme during catalysis, cob(II)alamin accumulated, and a trace of doublet signal due to an organic radical disappeared in EPR. 5′-Deoxyadenosine was formed from the adenosyl group, and the apoenzyme itself was not damaged. This inactivation was thus considered to be a mechanism-based one.

DOI： 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2008.06745.x

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Authorship：Last author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Oxford University Press (OUP)  

The reactions of diol dehydratase with 3-unsaturated 1,2-diols and thioglycerol were investigated. Holodiol dehydratase underwent rapid and irreversible inactivation by either 3-butene-1,2-diol, 3-butyne-1,2-diol or thioglycerol without catalytic turnovers. In the inactivation, the Co–C bond of adenosylcobalamin underwent irreversible cleavage forming unidentified radicals and cob(II)alamin that resisted oxidation even in the presence of oxygen. Two moles of 5′-deoxyadenosine per mol of enzyme was formed as an inactivation product from the coenzyme adenosyl group. Inactivated holoenzymes underwent reactivation by diol dehydratase-reactivating factor in the presence of ATP, Mg2+ and adenosylcobalamin. It was thus concluded that these substrate analogues served as mechanism-based inactivators or pseudosubstrates, and that the coenzyme was damaged in the inactivation, whereas apoenzyme was not damaged. In the inactivation by 3-unsaturated 1,2-diols, product radicals stabilized by neighbouring unsaturated bonds might be unable to back-abstract the hydrogen atom from 5′-deoxyadenosine and then converted to unidentified products. In the inactivation by thioglycerol, a product radical may be lost by the elimination of sulphydryl group producing acrolein and unidentified sulphur compound(s). H2S or sulphide ion was not formed. The loss or stabilization of product radicals would result in the inactivation of holoenzyme, because the regeneration of the coenzyme becomes impossible.

DOI： 10.1093/jb/mvn086

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Wiley  

Adenosylcobalamin-dependent diol and glycerol dehydratases are isofunctional enzymes and undergo mechanism-based inactivation by a physiological substrate glycerol during catalysis. Inactivated holoenzymes are reactivated by their own reactivating factors that mediate the ATP-dependent exchange of an enzyme-bound, damaged cofactor for free adenosylcobalamin through intermediary formation of apoenzyme. The reactivation takes place in two steps: (a) ADP-dependent cobalamin release and (b) ATP-dependent dissociation of the resulting apoenzyme–reactivating factor complexes. The in vitro experiments with purified proteins indicated that diol dehydratase-reactivating factor (DDR) cross-reactivates the inactivated glycerol dehydratase, whereas glycerol dehydratase-reactivating factor (GDR) did not cross-reactivate the inactivated diol dehydratase. We investigated the molecular basis of their specificities in vitro by using purified preparations of cognate and noncognate enzymes and reactivating factors. DDR mediated the exchange of glycerol dehydratase-bound cyanocobalamin for free adeninylpentylcobalamin, whereas GDR cannot mediate the exchange of diol dehydratase-bound cyanocobalamin for free adeninylpentylcobalamin. As judged by denaturing PAGE, the glycerol dehydratase–DDR complex was cross-formed, although the diol dehydratase–GDR complex was not formed. There were no specificities of reactivating factors in the ATP-dependent dissociation of enzyme–reactivating factor complexes. Thus, it is very likely that the specificities of reactivating factors are determined by the capability of reactivating factors to form complexes with apoenzymes. A modeling study based on the crystal structures of enzymes and reactivating factors also suggested why DDR cross-forms a complex with glycerol dehydratase, and why GDR does not cross-form a complex with diol dehydratase.

DOI： 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2007.06074.x

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The crystal structures of ADP bound and nucleotide-free forms of molecular chaperone-like diol dehydratase-reactivating factor (DDR) were determined at 2.0 and 3.0 Å, respectively. DDR exists as a dimer of heterodimer (αβ)2. The α subunit has four domains: ATPase domain, swiveling domain, linker domain, and insert domain. The β subunit, composed of a single domain, has a similar fold to the β subunit of diol dehydratase (DD). The binding of an ADP molecule to the nucleotide binding site of DDR causes a marked conformational change of the ATPase domain of the α subunit, which would weaken the interactions between the DDR α and β subunits and make the displacement of the DDR β subunit by DD through the β subunit possible. The binding of the DD β subunit to the DDR α subunit induces steric repulsion between the DDR α and DD α subunits that would lead to the release of a damaged cofactor from inactivated holoDD.

DOI： 10.1016/j.str.2005.08.011

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

To investigate the contribution of amino acid residues to the enzyme reaction of Streptomyces phospholipase D (PLD), we constructed a chimeric gene library between two highly homologous plds, which indicated different activity in transphosphatidylation, using RIBS (repeat-length independent and broad spectrum) in vivo DNA shuffling. By comparing the activities of chimeras, six candidate residues related to transphosphatidylation activity were shown. Based on the above result, we constructed several mutants to identify the key residues involved in the recognition of phospholipids. By kinetic analysis, we identified that Gly188 and Asp191 of PLD from Streptomyces septatus TH-2, which are not present in the highly conserved catalytic HXKXXXXD (HKD) motifs, are key amino acid residues related to the transphosphatidylation activity. To investigate the role of two residues in the recognition of phospholipids, the effects of these residues on binding to substrates were analyzed by surface plasmon spectroscopy. The result suggests that Gly188 and Asp191 are involved in the recognition of phospholipids in correlation with the N-terminal HKD motif. Furthermore, this study also provides experimental evidence that the N-terminal HKD motif contains the catalytic nucleophile, which attacks the phosphatidyl group of the substrate.

DOI： 10.1074/jbc.m414319200

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Authorship：Lead author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)  

Adenosylcobalamin (coenzyme B12) dependent diol dehydratase (EC 4.2.1.28) catalyzes the conversion of 1,2-diols and glycerol to the corresponding aldehydes. It undergoes mechanism-based inactivation by glycerol. The diol dehydratase-reactivating factor (DDR) reactivates the inactivated holoenzymes in the presence of adenosylcobalamin, ATP and Mg2+ by mediating the release of a damaged cofactor. This molecular chaperone-like factor was overexpressed in Escherichia coli, purified and crystallized in the ADP-bound and nucleotide-free forms by the sandwich-drop vapour-diffusion method. The crystals of the ADP-bound form belong to the orthorhombic system, with space group P212121 and unit-cell parameters a = 83.26, b = 84.60, c = 280.09 Å, and diffract to 2.0 Å. In the absence of nucleotide, DDR crystals were orthorhombic, with space group P212121 and unit-cell parameters a = 81.92, b = 85.37, c = 296.99 Å and diffract to 3.0 Å. Crystals of both forms were suitable for structural analysis.

DOI： 10.1107/s1744309105015733

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

To isolate thermostability-related amino acid residues of Streptomyces phospholipase D (PLD), we constructed a chimeral genes library between two highly homologous plds, which exhibited different thermostabilities, by an in vivo DNA shuffling method using Escherichia coli that has a mutation of a single-stranded DNA-binding protein gene. To confirm the location of the recombination site, we carried out the restriction mapping of 68 chimeral pld genes. The recombination sites were widely dispersed over the entire pld sequence. Moreover, we examined six chimeral PLDs by comparing their thermostabilities with those of parental PLDs. To identify a thermostability-related amino acid residue, we investigated the thermostability of chimera C that was the most thermolabile among the six chimeras. We identified the thermostability-related factor Gly-188, which is located in the alpha-7 helix of PLD from Streptomyces septatus TH-2 (TH-2PLD). TH-2PLD mutants, in which Gly-188 was substituted with Phe, Val or Trp, exhibited higher thermostabilities than that of the parental PLD. Gly-188 substituted with the Phe mutant, which was the most stable among the mutants, showed an enzyme activity almost the same as that of TH-2PLD as determine by kinetic analysis.

DOI： 10.1016/j.bbagen.2005.01.009

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Authorship：Lead author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：American Society for Microbiology  

We describe a novel method of random chimeragenesis based on highly frequent deletion formation in the Escherichia coli ssb-3 strain and a deletion-directed chimera selection system that uses the rpsL+ gene as a reporter. It enables the selection of chimeras without target gene expression and can therefore be applied to cytotoxic targets. When this system was applied to phospholipase D genes from Streptomyces septatus TH-2 and Streptomyces halstedii subsp. scabies K6 (examples of cytotoxic targets), chimeragenesis occurred between short identical sequences at the corresponding position of the parental genes with large variations. Chimeragenesis was >1,000 times more frequent in the ssb-3 background than in the ssb+ background. We called this system repeat-length-independent broad-spectrum shuffling. It enables the convenient chimeragenesis and functional study of chimeric proteins. In fact, we found two amino acid residues related to the thermostability of phospholipase D (Phe426 and Thr433) by comparing thermostability among the chimeric enzymes obtained.

DOI： 10.1128/aem.71.2.754-760.2005

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Authorship：Lead author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：American Society for Microbiology  

The holoenzyme of adenosylcobalamin-dependent ethanolamine ammonia lyase undergoes suicidal inactivation during catalysis as well as inactivation in the absence of substrate. The inactivation involves the irreversible cleavage of the Co-C bond of the coenzyme. We found that the inactivated holoenzyme undergoes rapid and continuous reactivation in the presence of ATP, Mg2+, and free adenosylcobalamin in permeabilized cells (in situ), homogenate, and cell extracts of Escherichia coli. The reactivation was observed in the permeabilized E. coli cells carrying a plasmid containing the E. coli eut operon as well. From coexpression experiments, it was demonstrated that the eutA gene, adjacent to the 5′ end of ethanolamine ammonia lyase genes (eutBC), is essential for reactivation. It encodes a polypeptide consisting of 467 amino acid residues with predicted molecular weight of 49,599. No evidence was obtained that shows the presence of the auxiliary protein(s) potentiating the reactivation or associating with EutA. It was demonstrated with purified recombinant EutA that both the suicidally inactivated and O2-inactivated holoethanolamine ammonia lyase underwent rapid reactivation in vitro by EutA in the presence of adenosylcobalamin, ATP, and Mg2+. The inactive enzyme-cyanocobalamin complex was also activated in situ and in vitro by EutA under the same conditions. Thus, it was concluded that EutA is the only component of the reactivating factor for ethanolamine ammonia lyase and that reactivation and activation occur through the exchange of modified coenzyme for free intact adenosylcobalamin.

DOI： 10.1128/jb.186.20.6845-6854.2004

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Authorship：Last author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

To investigate the contribution of amino acid residues to the thermostability of phospholipase D (PLD), a chimeric form of two Streptomyces PLDs (thermolabile K1PLD and thermostable TH-2PLD) was constructed. K/T/KPLD, in which residues 329–441 of K1PLD were recombined with the homologous region of TH-2PLD, showed a thermostability midway between those of K1PLD and TH-2PLD. By comparing the primary structures of Streptomyces PLDs, the seven candidates of thermostability-related amino acid residues of K1PLD were identified. The K1E346DPLD mutant, in which Glu346 of K1PLD was substituted with Asp by site-directed mutagenesis, exhibited enhanced thermostability, which was almost the same as that of TH-2PLD.

DOI： 10.1016/j.bbapap.2003.09.013

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Informa UK Limited  

To determine the catalytic site of Streptomyces chromofuscus phospholipase D (PLD), which lacks an HKD motif, we examined the effects of inhibitors on the hydrolytic activity of the PLD by comparing it with cabbage and Streptomyces PLDs, which have two HKD motifs. We showed that dichloro-(2,2':6',2"-terpyridine)-platinum (II) dihydrate, a His- and Cys-directed chemical modifier, had inhibitory effects on the activities of all types of PLD examined. On the other hand, N -ethylmaleimide, a thiol-directed modifier had no such effects on PLD activity. These results suggest that the His residue plays an important role in the activity of Streptomyces chromofuscus PLD.

DOI： 10.1080/1475636021000033252

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

Adenosylcobalamin-dependent glycerol dehydratase undergoes mechanism-based inactivation by its physiological substrate glycerol. We identified two genes (gdrAB) ofKlebsiella pneumoniae for a glycerol dehydratase-reactivating factor (Tobimatsu, T., Kajiura, H., Yunoki, M., Azuma, M., and Toraya, T. (1999) J. Bacteriol. 181, 4110–4113). Recombinant GdrA and GdrB proteins formed a tight complex of (GdrA)2(GdrB)2, which is a putative reactivating factor. The purified factor reactivated the glycerol-inactivated and O2-inactivated glycerol dehydratases as well as activated the enzyme-cyanocobalamin complex in vitro in the presence of ATP, Mg2+, and adenosylcobalamin. The factor mediated the exchange of the enzyme-bound, adenine-lacking cobalamins for free, adenine-containing cobalamins in the presence of ATP and Mg2+ through intermediate formation of apoenzyme. The factor showed extremely low ATP-hydrolyzing activity and formed a tight complex with apoenzyme in the presence of ADP. Incubation of the enzyme-cyanocobalamin complex with the reactivating factor in the presence of ADP brought about release of the enzyme-bound cobalamin. The resulting tight inactive complex of apoenzyme with the factor dissociated upon incubation with ATP, forming functional apoenzyme and a low affinity form of factor. Thus, it was established that the reactivation of the inactivated holoenzymes takes place in two steps: ADP-dependent cobalamin release and ATP-dependent dissociation of the apoenzyme-factor complex. We propose that the glycerol dehydratase-reactivating factor is a molecular chaperone that participates in reactivation of the inactivated enzymes.

DOI： 10.1074/jbc.m105182200

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Authorship：Lead author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：American Chemical Society (ACS)  

The mechanism of reactivation of diol dehydratase by its reactivating factor was investigated in vitro by using enzyme·cyanocobalamin complex as a model for inactivated holoenzyme. The factor mediated the exchange of the enzyme-bound, adenine-lacking cobalamins for free, adenine-containing cobalamins through intermediate formation of apoenzyme. The factor showed extremely low but distinct ATP-hydrolyzing activity. It formed a tight complex with apoenzyme in the presence of ADP but not at all in the presence of ATP. Incubation of the enzyme·cyanocobalamin complex with the reactivating factor in the presence of ADP brought about release of the enzyme-bound cobalamin, leaving the tight apoenzyme-reactivating factor complex. Although the resulting complex was inactive even in the presence of added adenosylcobalamin, it dissociated by incubation with ATP, forming the apoenzyme, which was reconstitutable into active holoenzyme with added coenzyme. Thus, it was established that the reactivation of the inactivated holoenzyme by the factor in the presence of ATP and Mg2+ takes place in two steps:  ADP-dependent cobalamin release and ATP-dependent dissociation of the apoenzyme·factor complex. ATP plays dual roles as a precursor of ADP in the first step and as an effector to change the factor into the low-affinity form for diol dehydratase. The enzyme-bound adenosylcobalamin was also susceptible to exchange with free adeninylpentylcobalamin, although to a much lesser degree. The mechanism for discrimination of adenine-containing cobalamins from adenine-lacking cobalamins was explained in terms of formation equilibrium constants of the cobalamin·enzyme·reactivating factor ternary complexes. We propose that the reactivating factor is a new type of molecular chaperone that participates in reactivation of the inactivated enzymes.

DOI： 10.1021/bi9911738

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Authorship：Last author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

Adenosylcobalamin-dependent diol dehydratase of Klebsiella oxytoca undergoes suicide inactivation by glycerol, a physiological substrate. The coenzyme is modified through irreversible cleavage of its cobalt-carbon bond, resulting in inactivation of the enzyme by tight binding of the modified coenzyme to the active site. Recombinant DdrA and DdrB proteins of K. oxytoca were co-purified to homogeneity from cell-free extracts of Escherichia coli overexpressing theddrAB genes. They existed as a tight complex,i.e. a putative reactivating factor, with an apparent molecular weight of 150,000. The factor consists of equimolar amounts of the two subunits with M r of 64,000 (A) and 14,000 (B), encoded by the ddrA and ddrB genes, respectively. Therefore, its subunit structure is most likely A2B2. The factor not only reactivated glycerol-inactivated and O2-inactivated holoenzymes but also activated enzyme-cyanocobalamin complex in the presence of free adenosylcobalamin, ATP, and Mg2+. The reactivating factor mediated ATP-dependent exchange of the enzyme-bound cyanocobalamin for free 5-adeninylpentylcobalamin in the presence of ATP and Mg2+, but the reverse was not the case. Thus, it can be concluded that the inactivated holoenzyme becomes reactivated by exchange of the enzyme-bound, adenine-lacking cobalamins for free adenosylcobalamin, an adenine-containing cobalamin.

DOI： 10.1074/jbc.274.6.3372

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Authorship：Lead author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Elsevier BV  

Diol dehydratase undergoes suicide inactivation by glycerol during catalysis involving irreversible cleavage of the Co-C bond of adenosylcobalamin. In permeabilized Klebsiella oxytoca and Klebsiella pneumoniae cells, the glycerol-inactivated holoenzyme or the enzyme-cyanocobalamin complex is rapidly activated by the exchange of the inactivated coenzyme or cyanocobalamin for free adenosylcobalamin in the presence of ATP and Mg2+ (Honda, S., Toraya, T., and Fukui, S. (1980) J. Bacteriol. 143, 1458–1465; Ushio, K., Honda, S., Toraya, T., and Fukui, S. (1982) J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 28, 225–236). Permeabilized Escherichia coli cells co-expressing the diol dehydratase genes with two open reading frames in the 3′-flanking region were capable of reactivating glycerol-inactivated diol dehydratase as well as activating the enzyme-cyanocobalamin complex in situ in the presence of free adenosylcobalamin, ATP, and Mg2+. These open reading frames, designated as ddrA and ddrB genes, were identified as the genes of a putative reactivating factor for inactivated diol dehydratase. The genes encoded polypeptides consisting of 610 and 125 amino acid residues with predicted molecular weights of 64,266 and 13,620, respectively. Co-expression of the open reading frame in the 5′-flanking region was stimulatory but not obligatory for conferring the reactivating activity upon E. coli. Thus, the product of this gene was considered not an essential component of the reactivating factor.

DOI： 10.1074/jbc.272.51.32034

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Authorship：Lead author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Oxford University Press (OUP)  

The adenosylcobalamin-dependent diol dehydratase of Klebsiella oxytoca undergoes suicidal inactivation by glycerol during catalysis involving irreversible dissociation of the Co–C bond of the coenzyme. The glycerol-inactivated holoenzyme in permeabilized cells (in situ) of E. coli harboring a plasmid containing the diol dehydratase genes and their flanking regions was rapidly reactivated in the presence of free AdoCbl, ATP, and Mg2+. β,γ-Methylene ATP was not able to replace ATP. Inactive complexes of the enzyme with aqCbl, CN-Cbl, and PeCbl were activated in situ in the presence of AdoCbl, ATP, and Mg2+, but the complex with AdePeCbl was not. These results suggest that the inactivated holoenzyme is reactivated in situ in the presence of ATP and Mg2+ by exchange of the inactivated coenzyme lacking the adenine moiety for free intact AdoCbl. The in situ reactivation was also observed when an analog lacking the α-ribose moiety of the nucleotide loop was used as coenzyme. The results with a recombinant E. coli strains carrying a deletion mutant plasmid demonstrate that certain protein(s) encoded by the 3′-flanking region of the diol dehydratase genes are essential for the in situ reactivation of inactivated diol dehydratase.

DOI： 10.1271/bbb.61.1729

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：BLACKWELL PUBLISHING  

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Language：English   Publisher：The Biophysical Society of Japan General Incorporated Association  

DOI： 10.2142/biophys.48.S77_4

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：日本ビタミン学会  

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：公益社団法人 日本ビタミン学会  

DOI： 10.20632/vso.81.5-6_267

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：公益社団法人 日本ビタミン学会  

DOI： 10.20632/vso.80.1_31

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：BLACKWELL PUBLISHING  

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DOI： 10.1107/S0108767305089336

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Language：Japanese  

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Language：English  

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：岡山県生物科学総合研究所  

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：日本ビタミン学会  

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：Wiley  

DOI： 10.1002/biof.5520110131

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：日本ビタミン学会  

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：社団法人日本農芸化学会  

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Language：Japanese   Publisher：社団法人日本農芸化学会  

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